Unveiling the Chinese Tributary System: Commercial Bonds Beyond Political Rifts

Tributary System in Ancient China

Tributary System

Fairbank viewed the tribute system as "the medium for Chinese international relations and diplomacy" and "a scheme of things entire... the mechanism by which barbarous non-Chinese regions were given their place in the all-embracing Chinese political, and therefore ethical, scheme of things." The assumption of his model is based on professed Chinese superiority, i.e., Sinocenterism, thus the relations China built with other nations were hierarchic and nonegalitarian, with China clearly considered at the top of the hierarchy. These hierarchies needed to be respected and acknowledged in order to open up relations with China. Fairbank classified three zones according to which relations were maintained by China, and nations within zones were expected, in theory, to pay tributes to the Son of Heaven.

The core of the Tributary system was a set of institutions and norms that regulated diplomatic and political contact, cultural and economic relations with the concurrence of Chinese superiority in all dimensions. Non-Chinese paying tribute to the emperor viewed as endorsing the legitimacy of the Chinese ruler, and the motive for doing so for them is the immense prospect of trade and commerce attached with China. In Fairbank’s words, he described this as "Tribute mission as a vehicle for trade". China was clearly the most powerful, wealthy, and the cultural centre. Officially, the relationship was opened through investiture, and by sending representatives to the Central state, these representatives formalized the diplomatic association between the two sides and likewise acted as a medium of contact. Their function was to deliver information about important news and events, formalize trade rules, and also allow intellectual and cultural exchange.

China sat at the epicentre of a vast trading network, and Chinese normal and luxury goods were sought after literally around the world. China was the prominent trading focus of most East Asian states; the ancient silk route and the maritime trade route became the source of transferring innovations and commodities from China to the outside world.

In general, there were four categories of foreign trade: tribute, official, commercial, and illegal (smuggling and piracy). Of these, the tribute trade was the most important but also the smallest portion of total trade, and commercial trade was the largest. For China, the biggest incentive behind the tribute system was the symbolic prestige value of tribute; for other countries, compliance with the system was motivated by trade opportunities with China. Tributary states sent periodic tribute missions to the Chinese capital, and each time rulers of tributary states changed, China dispatched an envoy to officially recognize the new ruler. In exchange for the gifts carried to the Chinese court, tribute bearers received silk textiles and other goods from the emperor; they received more than they gave. Specially authorized traders accompanying the envoy engaged in commercial transactions at specified locations in the capital. In addition, more than ten times as many merchants as these special traders exchanged commodities with local merchants at the country’s borders and designated ports. In short, lucrative trade was the lubricant for the tributary system, defining regional political, economic, and cultural intercourse.

Appeasing Trade

Trade with China appeared more vital to many neighboring peoples than it did to the Empire itself. Therefore, foreigners would normally be ready to trade on terms set by the Chinese, and their worry of losing their trade would keep them from causing trouble. Even when the state lost its vigour, the tributary system, though weakened, was not abandoned; it continued to serve the interest of the Empire. However, the terms were now open to negotiation, whereas earlier they had been dictated by the Court. Chinese military weakness did not, however, prompt invasion; war was only marginally profitable and risks were high. Trade in Chinese goods and negotiating from a better position was a far more appealing prospect for peoples in the borders.

A clear example is offered by the decline in Imperial power from 1549 to 1644 when the Ming appeased the Mongols by accepting their demands for trade and tribute. In extreme cases, this could turn into a form of outright reversal of tribute, with Imperial subsidies, gifts, titles, and edicts of praise being issued to attract or pacify various khans or lamas. The Imperial Court refrained from levying taxes on tributary goods, and foreign rulers gladly participated because they desired the valuable objects bestowed by the Chinese, as well as the opportunity to trade in other Chinese goods such as tea and silk.

The embassy members were allowed to carry some 2,000 taels of silver for the purpose of private trade. The bulk of this side trade was mainly carried out to benefit the original owner of the foreign goods, usually the ruler or members of the aristocracy of a vassal state. An important factor in ensuring the durability of the tributary system, therefore, was the role played by foreign elites in providing a complementary check upon private trade – namely, enforcing the ban among their own population. When this failed, the likelihood of systemic decay increased steadily.

Another challenge was covert private trade; the Empire consistently fought an uphill battle against it. Chinese traders were more inclined to trade directly with their foreign counterparts than with the government because transactions were conducted on equal ground. However, the Imperial government, by ‘politicizing’ the exchange, placed outsiders in disadvantageous positions at the outset. By the second decade of the 19th century, many areas in Southeast Asia, formerly known in Chinese records as ‘tributaries,’ were indicated as ‘trading states.’

Conclusion

It is evident that military prowess, diplomacy, power perception, and political stances were not the sole essential factors in the tributary system. Commercial interests played a crucial role in preserving the tributary system despite China's declining power in the pre-modern era. China emerged as the hub of trade for foreigners, attracting traders to engage in tributary trade.

Taking the example of the tea trade in China, it was one of the commodities monopolized by Chinese traders. Tea, particularly, was exported in exchange for high-quality horse breeds from the Middle East for cavalry use. Moreover, it was exchanged for superior quality products in Korea, Japan, and the West. Embassies were established for better coordination, and they were also permitted to host traders from their respective countries. Certain concessions were granted to countries to maintain the profitability of trade despite major issues.

An appeasement policy for trade was central to preserving the legitimacy of the Son of Heaven. While countries outwardly acknowledged the power of the Chinese court, in reality, it was the immense trade opportunities that attracted them.

Sources

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